2
What is argument/arguing?
Not a fight!!
Argumentative writing – taking a strong personal position on a significant, social, controversial issue, and by the use of evidence and specific strategies, explaining that position, defending that position, responding to counterarguments for that position, and suggesting a solution for that position.
3
Argumentative Writing as a Process
The aim is to produce something that is understandable and persuasive.
Proper paradigm/perspective
Specific evidence
Clear language/definition of terms (recognizing their denotations and connotations)
4
Argument – A Process
No unwarranted assumptions
Logos – information
Pathos – emotions
Ethos – ethics
5
Know the purpose – to argue/persuade by informing and analyzing.
Know the genre – formal academic essay (MLA format)
Know your audience – varied and general
Know what resources you need
Prewriting Stage
6
Some Specifics Regarding Formal Writing
Proper Diction
Avoiding clichés and slang
Avoiding repetition/wordiness
Avoiding etc and vice versa
The Importance of Language/ Meaning
Not excluding females (he or she) and using gender neutral language where appropriate
Having correct spelling & punctuation
Using correct rules for capitalization, abbreviations, and numbers
First word in a sentence
A sentence in a direct quotation
Main words in titles/headings (unless the others words are the first or last ones)
Capitalization
9
Proper nouns
Companies, holidays, months, days, historical events & documents, religious documents, languages, specific courses
Capitalization (cont’d)
10
Seasons of the year
Words like company, department, school, college, government, association when they stand alone
Names of commercial products (e.g. Nike shoes Not Nike Shoes)
Capitalization Pitfalls
11
Shortened form of a word
CAN USE common ones for people – Mr. George Smith, Dr. Kathy Lawrence, Jim Jones M.D., Carlos Lopez Jr., J.B. Russell
CAN USE for companies if you are confident that audience will know what they are – AAA, NLC, AT&T, FBI,UPS
Abbreviations
12
CAN USE for unit of time – a.m. or A.M. NOT a.M.
CANNOT USE address abbreviations – St., Ave., P.O. Box, DFW, TX (exception:USA)
CANNOT USE for units of measure – cm,ft,in,gal,lb,kg,mph
Abbreviations (cont’d)
13
CANNOT USE for days and months
Varies for miscellaneous abbreviations – ASAP, ETA, CEO, DVD, ATM
Abbreviations (cont’d)
14
Spell out numbers 1-100
Use numerals, even for numbers less than hundred, with units of measure and with percentages.
In a list, if there are numbers greater than hundred, use numerals for all.
Numbers
15
Spell out when numbers occur at the start of the sentence
Spell out indefinite numbers
Years – spell out or use numerals
Ages – Spell out or use numerals
Sums of money are written in numerals
Numbers (cont’d)
16
Words and numerals are used for amounts of a million or more
For time, numerals are used with a.m. or p.m. and words must be used with “o’clock”
For dates, the ‘th’ or the ‘st’ or ‘rd’ or ‘nd’ in not needed as long as the month is written first.
Numbers (cont’d)
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Writing Stage
Title
Introduction
Body
Conclusion
Works Cited
Parts of an Essay
19
Purpose of the title is identification
Should indicate subject and position of essay
Should not be more than 6 words
Cliché/slang/humor allowed in title
Cute/clever/funny title does not necessarily indicate a proper title
Guidelines for a Proper Title
20
Must not summarize your entire paper
No dictionary/formal definitions
No clichés or overused phrases
No apologies
Must include your thesis statement
Should be a preview/guide to your essay
Introduction – First Impression
21
One thesis per paper
Only one sentence
Combination of fact and opinion
Avoid phrases such as – in my opinion, I think, I believe, it seems to me, I feel
Thesis Statement (The Main Idea of Your Paper)
22
Your topic
Your position on the topic
At least 2 reasons to support your position
A Thesis Should Contain…
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Red-light cameras are a good idea because…
The voting age should be raised to 21 because…
Standardized tests are a good requirement for college admission because…
Outsourcing is bad for our country because…
Examples of Argumentative Theses
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Provide background info
Tell a relevant story
State why your topic is important
Relevant images or description
Present an opposing viewpoint
Relevant quotation(s)
Introductory Techniques
25
Relevant example(s)
Relevant question(s) [not more than 3]
Finding common ground with the reader/audience
Length of introduction – 1 paragraph, ¼ to ½ page (5-10 lines)
Techniques(cont’d)
26
Where you explain or prove your thesis with evidence.
Every reason must have at least one piece of evidence
Body Paragraphs
27
Some types of evidence – observations (real or artificial), statistics, tests/experiments, analogies, expert testimony, examples, analyses, predictions, personal experience, religious views, etc
Note: Statistics must be within last 3 years and contain sample size
Evidence – Basis of Your Argument
28
Relevant
Specific
Adequate
Accurate
Representative
Verifiable
Characteristics of Evidence
29
Use as many different types as possible (a different one for each reason)
Maintain proper perspective (e.g. movies, stereotypes)
Distinguish between fact, opinion, and false statement
Beware of “the blame game”
Is evidence local or universal?
Support Your Reasons (cont’d)
30
Make sure evidence is understandable to audience
Treat all issues as ‘sensitive issues’ (balance between arguing and offending)
Support Your Reasons (cont’d)
31
Write paras that are focused, developed and organized
Length of paras: ¼ – ¾ (5-18 lines) of a page. Have variety and balance!
How many paras per reason – you decide
Ask yourself – would my paper be any different if I took this paragraph out?
Body Paragraphs
32
Do not summarize your entire paper
Do not repeat thesis or introduce any new main ideas
Avoid statements like in conclusion, to summarize, in closing, etc.
Conclusion – Final Impression
33
Summarize most important reason only (do not even mention other reason/s)
Any introduction technique (other than the one you used in the intro)
Length of conclusion – 1 paragraph, ¼ to ½ page (5-10 lines)
Conclusion – Final Impression
34
Must write on first topic in your list of topics
Pick a side (for or against)
Have at least 2 different reasons to support your position
Explain reasons (with evidence)
Requirements of Essay 1
Requirements of Essay 1 (cont’d)
Minimum Required Sources: 2 print & 2 online (at least one online MUST be through DCCCD academic database)
At least one of your print sources and one of your online sources must be used in the body of your essay.
Recommended course textbook does not count as a print source
Requirements of Essay 1 (cont’d)
Must attach photocopy or picture of each print source (no credit for print sources otherwise).
Personal experience – can be used in only one reason, up to ¼ page (5 lines)
How much documented evidence – one documented evidence for every 10 lines in your paragraph.
Intro (1 Para)
Reasons with evidence (multiple paras)
Conclusion (1 para)
Length: 3-4 pages (starts with first word of intro, NOT top of first page!)
Outline of Essay 1
Research involves finding, evaluating, using & documenting sources
Most important consideration when evaluating a source – who is the author or manager or editor of the information?
The Research Process
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Plagiarism is using another person’s language or ideas without acknowledging them or using them and acting as if they were your own.
Plagiarism is derived from the Latin word for kidnapper or thief.
Plagiarism
40
Plagiarism is treated so seriously because you are trying to be someone you are not and not acknowledging the hard work or effort of someone else.
Plagiarism (cont’d)
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Deliberate plagiarism – with intent
Accidental/unintentional plagiarism – due to carelessness, hurry, or ignorance
Types of Plagiarism
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When you quote an entire sentence word for word
When you quote part of a sentence word for word
When using your own language but based on someone else’s idea (paraphrasing)
Cite Sources…
43
Bibliography – can list all sources referenced or referred to even if they do not appear in your paper
Works Cited – can list only those sources actually used in your paper
We are using Works Cited
Works Cited vs Bibliography
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I. By name of author
According to name of author, “72% of people that….”
“72% of 300 people surveyed stated that….” (name of author).
Name of author = first & last name or just last name, NOT just first name.
Indicating Sources in Paper
II. By name of source (e.g. book/article).
According to name of source, “72% of people that….”
“72% of 300 people surveyed stated that….” (name of source).
Indicating Sources in Paper
Indicating Sources in Paper
If source is book/magazine/newspaper/ website put in italics.
If source is name of article put in quotation marks.
Can use various verbs for introducing quotes/paraphrases (asserts, believes, claims, reports, observes, etc)
Quote should not be more than 4 lines
Quote should not be in first or last sentence of any paragraph.
For print sources, page number(s) should be indicated.
Indicating Sources in Paper
Times New Roman, size 12 font
1-inch margins all around
Double-spaced
Black ink, white paper
Stapled (in order!)
Layout of first page – see example essay on ecampus
Need last name and page number in top right corner of every page
Formatting (MLA)
Formatting (MLA)
3-4 pages of content (Works Cited page does not count)
Length starts with first word of intro para (NOT top of first page)
Format of entries – must follow current MLA standards (handout on e-campus).
Every entry in works cited page must correspond to an entry in your paper and vice versa.
Formatting (cont’d)
Argumentative Strategies
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Opposites or Contraries
Comparison-Contrast*
Cause-Effect*
Induction/Deduction*
Narration/Description*
Analogy
List of Strategies
Classification-Division*
Emotion/Humor*
Definition
Hypothetical Situation
*Counts as only one strategy
List of Strategies (cont’d)
Definition of what is right and wrong OR good or bad
Ethics
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You get extra change back at the grocery store
You see somebody doing something wrong
You get a higher grade by mistake
Plagiarism
An effective message isn’t necessarily an ethical one – sales pitches or commercials
Ethics in Everyday Life
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How do I meet my audience’s info needs?
How do I gain audience’s support?
How can I be sure I am doing the right thing?
3 Problems Faced by Arguers
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When it prevents people from making the best decisions or leaves them at a disadvantage
When it is unclear what you are trying to get across
When it offends/insults in a way that is unacceptable to the audience
What is Unethical Communication?
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Withholding info
Hiding conflicts of interest
Exaggeration
Fabricating data
Trying to distract from the truth
Stealing info
Copyright issues
Inaccurate info
Ways in Which Unethical Communication Takes Place
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How can I know the right action?
What are my obligations and to whom?
What values do I want to stand for?
What are the consequences?
Rely on Critical Thinking
60
Never depend only on legal considerations – what’s legal isn’t always ethical (“You’re our #1 priority” OR “This product will last for years”).
Decide where and how to draw the line – a choice YOU have to make
Anticipate Hard Choices
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Know when to use – appropriate for certain topics, not for others …who decides?
Don’t distract from the issue (too much humor)
Sarcasm – how much is too much?
Humor – Medicine or Poison?
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Must write on second topic in your list of topics
Have at least three reasons to justify your position (but not more than five)
Have a separate paragraph on history/background of issue
Requirements of Research Essay
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Rest of body – explain & defend reasons (with evidence)
Must use at least three strategies in body (other than refutation/ counterarguments) indicated in essay with ** and name of strategy
Each strategy must be in a different reason
Requirements of Research Essay (cont’d)
Must have at least two counterarguments (max three)
Concluding para will be solution (no summary!)
Requirements of Research Essay (cont’d)
Length: 6-8 pages (not counting Works Cited)
Requirements of Research Essay (cont’d)
Intro (1 para, ¼ – ½ page or 5-10 lines): Any intro technique(s) and thesis
History/Background (1 para, ¼ – ½ page or 5-10 lines): Any two techniques
Body (multiple paras, ¼ – ¾ page each or 5-18 lines)
Conclusion (1 para, ½ – ¾ page or 10-18 lines): Solution (no summary)
Outline of Research Paper
Six total (four online, two print)
Online: Four
At least one online source must be through dcccd library database
At least one online source must be a non-library database source
Sources for Research Paper
Print: Two (Need photocopy/picture of each print source)
Recommended course textbook does NOT count as one of the two
You are free to use more than 6 sources if you need to
Sources( cont’d)
Sources( cont’d)
At least one of your print sources and one of your online sources must be used in the body of your essay.
Personal experience – can be used in only one reason, up to ½ page (10 lines)
Sources( cont’d)
How much documented evidence – one documented evidence for every 10 lines in your paragraph.
Responding to the points made by the opposing side
Shows you have thought about the issue from different viewpoints/ angles before coming to your decision.
Counterarguments
72
Also shows you recognize “flaws” or “weaknesses” in your own position.
We cannot address all counterarguments – must address at least 2, not more than 3
Counterarguments (cont’d)
73
Research
Thinking (try “flipping” one of your own reasons)
State the counterargument and your response to it
How to Find Counterarguments
74
State the counterargument : 2-3 lines
My opponents* may say/argue that….
*[those on the other side, those who disagree with me, proponents of the counter position, those who are for/against, those with a different point of view]
Format of Counterarguments
Respond to the counterargument : 2-3 lines
However, I would respond by saying that…
Total space devoted to each counterargument: not more than 6 lines.
Format of Counterarguments
Location of Counterarguments
Either in existing body paras or all counterarguments together in one separate para.
If separate para, it should be the last body para.
Purpose: To provide some additional context to your issue
Should include at least 2 of the following…
How long the issue has been in existence (origins of the issue)
What parts of the world/country are most affected by the issue
History/Background Para
Any significant rulings/laws related to the issue (e.g. Roe v.Wade)
Any significant event(s) related to the issue (e.g. 9/11)
Dictionary/official definitions of any key concepts/terms
Any significant people/groups involved with the issue
History/Background Para (cont’d)
Do not repeat anything already mentioned in intro
Length: ¼ – ½ page (5-10 lines)
History/Background Para (cont’d)
Logical Fallacies
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If we ban Hummers because they are bad for the environment, eventually the government will ban all cars, so we should not ban Hummers.
In this example the author is equating banning Hummers with banning all cars, which is not the same thing.
1.Slippery Slope
82
When I was a child, my parents spanked me regularly, and I turned out just fine. Therefore, there is no harm in spanking as a form of punishment.
Just because something is true in one instance does not mean it is true in every instance.
2. Sweeping Generalization
83
Temperatures across the U.S. last year exceeded the fifty-year average by two degrees, thus proving that global warming is a reality.
Is this enough evidence to make such a broad claim?
3. Hasty Generalization
84
The Volkswagen Beetle is an evil car because it was originally designed by Hitler’s army.
In this example the author is equating the character of a car with the character of the people who built the car.
4. Genetic Fallacy
85
Students who default on their student loans prove they are not responsible.
Conclusion does not logically flow from the evidence presented or is based on irrelevant evidence. Students who default could be facing other financial emergencies or be facing prolonged unemployment.
5. Non-Sequitur
86
According to Lady Gaga, the best way to solve the economic crisis is…
Is Lady Gaga a qualified authority on the economy?
6. False Authority
87
I drank green tea and my headache went away. Therefore, green tea is good for curing headaches.
Showing an illegitimate cause and effect.
7. False Cause
88
We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth.
Only two extreme possibilities are mentioned.
8.Either/Or
89
If you were a true American you would support the rights of people to choose whatever vehicle they want.
Equating two unrelated things.
9. Ad Populum
90
Smith’s friends were convicted of fraud, so Smith cannot be trusted.
Discrediting a person because of problems with his or her associates, friends, or family.
10. Guilt by Association
91
Our politicians are all lazy, dishonest scumbags, which is why our economy is suffering.
Personal attacks on people.
11. Ad Hominem
92
Everybody knows that Shakespeare is the greatest English author of all time.
Does “everybody” really know this?
12. Bandwagon
93
The wealthy should pay more taxes because taxes should be for people with higher incomes.
Matt Damon is a good actor because he acts well.
Just restates the position in different words.
13. Circular Argument
94
Children have always learned to read in the first grade, so why should we begin to teach them any earlier now?
Just because something has been done in the past does not mean it is good or bad.
14. Appeal to Tradition
95
Ignorance
Popularity/majority
Participation
Other Fallacies
96
Examples of Logical Fallacies
McDonald’s has over 36,000 restaurants worldwide. How can it be unhealthy?
Six million people used Wikipedia last year for research. Therefore, it must be reliable.
It’s true that college tuition is rising everywhere, but imagine going to school in some beautiful place like the West Coast.
Examples of Logical Fallacies
Student’s can’t write well because they are always texting.
Those who criticize America’s war policy should go live with the enemy.
Those who support war should fight in it.
Let’s return America to greatness by embracing the tradition of true family values.
Examples of Logical Fallacies
Joe found his car windows smashed. ‘It must have been aliens,” he said.
I know I was going 80 miles per hour but the person in front of me was going at least 90.
Yes, I cheated on the test but I also helped tutor many students this weekend.
Examples of Logical Fallacies
I’m not poor, I’m just economically challenged right now.
Have you been in Mr. Crane’s apartment? I don’t know Mr. Crane.
It’s true I don’t do well in math, but many creative people have this problem.
Because the Internet has so much information, let’s get rid of libraries.
Examples of Logical Fallacies
The TV ad promised that one bottle of “Feel Good” would make you feel better. Father immediately rushed out and bought a dozen bottles.
Tom used his computer’s spelling and grammar checker. He was confident his research paper would earn an A.
Examples of Logical Fallacies
If same-sex marriage becomes legal, eventually incest will too.
How can you say I’m a bad driver when you’ve had five accidents yourself?
Hillary Clinton would never make a good president; she’s a woman.
Donald Trump would never make a good president; look at his hair.
Examples of Logical Fallacies
I know I stepped on your earphones, but it was your fault for leaving them on the floor.
How can you listen to his chemistry lecture? He just got divorced last week.
My uncle is an alcoholic because he can’t stop drinking.
Examples of Logical Fallacies
Everyone uses Facebook.
Some football players weigh over 300 pounds; therefore, we can conclude that football makes people fat.
I did not steal your pen; I was just borrowing it.
Aliens exist because no one has proven that they don’t.
Examples of Logical Fallacies
I could have done better in the race but it was very hot that day, and the heat took the energy out of me.
The supermodel said she drinks 12 ounces of water day. Maybe if I drink 24 ounces I’ll be twice as attractive.
My professor was absent; he must have been murdered.
Examples of Logical Fallacies
I didn’t do well on the exam. Therefore, no one must have done well.
Many of Dr. Smith’s patients have died of cancer, so she must not be a very good doctor.
Myra wept while trying to explain her failing grade in chemistry. It wasn’t her fault; the professor hated her.
I. Do not make an argument without proposing a solution
Anyone can complain/point out a problem!
A solution shows you have thought deeply and seriously about the issue
II. Ask for a specific response
Don’t be vague
Don’t be unsure
Proposing a Solution
III. Know the particulars regarding your solution
What is it going to involve in terms of time, money, effort, and image?
What are its advantages/benefits/risks?
Proposing a Solution (cont’d)
IV. Don’t ask for too much
Be reasonable
Don’t ask your audience to do something you wouldn’t do
V. Offer realistic solutions
Keep audience and their limitations/ context in mind
Don’t offer “blanket” solutions
Proposing a Solution (cont’d)
VI. Don’t feel you always have to come up with an original idea
If something has worked elsewhere, nothing wrong in suggesting it
Show specific examples of how it has worked in the past
You can also modify existing solutions
Give credit where credit is due!
Proposing a Solution (cont’d)
To sum up, make sure your solution is…
Relevant
Specific
Logical
Practical/realistic
Ethical/moral
Proposing a Solution (cont’d)
Analyzing a Short Story
112
What is the plot? (2-3 lines summary)
Understandable or too complex?
Tension/conflict?
Too fast/slow? Appropriate?
1.Plot
113
Indentify major character(s)
Descriptions of major ones (physical/personality)
Stereotypes and break in stereotypes of major characters
2.Characters
114
Geographical (city/state/country)
Time period (year/time of year/day/time of day)
Specific (house/village, etc)
Cultural (any prevailing social/ political /religious conditions that affect/ influence the story )
3. Setting
115
Is it internal (one of the characters in the story)
Or is it external (someone outside the story)
Which do you prefer and why?
4. Narrator
116
Images or symbols used (must have at least one human and one non human)
Must explain what each one symbolizes.
5. Images/Symbols
117
What is the main message of the story?
Explain how you arrived at your answer.
6.Theme/Message
118
Intro (1 Para, ¼ – ½ page/5-10 lines): Bio of author & thesis statement (thesis = what you think is the major theme of the story)
Body (Multiple paras, ¼- ¾ page/5-18 lines): Elaborate on categories 1-5 (in order)
Layout of Short Story Essay
119
Layout of Short Story Essay (cont’d)
Conclusion (1 Para, ½ page/10 lines): Explain theme (category 6)
Sources: 1 Print & 1 Online (text/link of story does not count as the online source).
Must attach photocopy/picture of print source (no credit for print source otherwise).
‘Text of story’ source must still be listed in works cited page.
Layout of Short Story Essay (cont’d)
Title can either reference the main theme of the story or indicate an analysis of the story.
Title must not simply be the name of the story.
Layout of Short Story Essay (cont’d)